American Revolution The American Revolutionary War

The American Revolution is known as the war fought between American and Great Britain, for Americans freedom. The American Revolution is also commonly known as the American Revolutionary War, or the U.S War of Independence. The War itself only last a short eight years, it began in 1775 and ended in 1783, but tensions had been building up for centuries between the Great Britain and the colonies at the given time period. The American Revolutionary War until 1778 was a war of independence between the Great Britain and the thirteen colonies, but after 1778 it became an international war, when Spain, France, and the Netherlands joined forces with the colonies. Much of the War began after the signing of the Treaty of Pairs 1763, which ended the French and Indian War. Between the years of 1764 and 1765, the British Parliament passed the Sugar Act and Stamp Act, which angered the Colonies. The Sugar Act was put in place to ban importation of Rum and French Wines form the Dutch and French, a nd it would increase taxes on sugar and products that were imported for the colonies form Britain. The Stamp Act was put into place to tax the American Colonies on paper shipment, and paper products. A few years passed, and the colonies grew more and more furious with the British parliament, so in 1768 Great Britain sent troops to Boston to attempt to reduce the political uproar. In 1773 Great Britain passed the Tea Act, which the American people saw as a way for Great Britain to make evenShow MoreRelatedThe Revolutionary War And The American Revolution915 Words   |  4 PagesThe American Revolution was an important turning point in that process as it marked the beginning of the end slavery in the northern states and, by contrast, its intensification in most of the southern states. When I think about how the Revolutionary War affected enslaved African Americans it was quite interesting. After reading the testimony of one the ex slave right around the the time of the Revolutionary War still seemed harsh. Samuel Elliot was born into slavery and was a farmer. When many ofRead MoreComparing The American Revolutionary War and The French Revolution894 Words   |  4 Pagesthoughts to make decisions. The idea of fearing their God and church was no longer seen as necessary. People were trying to come up with solutions through their own rational thought uninfluenced by anyone else, but themselves. Both France and the American colonies were becoming secular, though France probably more so. Religious tolerance was a major issue for both countries. Many of the colonists who had fled to America did so because they were being persecuted. The Pilgrims, who settled the PlymouthRead MoreThe American Revolution : The Revolutionary War And The Original Constitution1211 Words   |  5 PagesThe American Revolution is one of the most lauded and celebrated periods in the history of the United States. People revere the patriotic unity and radical changes employed by the Revolut ionary War and the original Constitution. But while the formation of a new nation was radical in and of itself, the Founding Fathers warned against viewing the time as a perfect, golden age. They believed that true change would only manifest in the generations to come. The American Revolution led to fundamental societalRead MoreHow Freemasonry Steered the American Revolution and the Revolutionary War938 Words   |  4 Pageslargest, the masons also had an impact on military conditions during the American Revolution and War for Independence. The masons were essential in providing military camaraderie during the wars leading up to the American Revolution and during the Revolutionary war through their military lodges and inclusive stance. Military Lodges provided support and boosted morale for soldiers during the War for Independence among other wars. Military lodges were much like normal lodges except that they did notRead MoreThe Revolutionary War Of Independence1366 Words   |   6 PagesThe American Revolution which began as a War of Independence for American quickly transformed into a civil battle between the American patriots and loyalists joined by Indian forces. This war of independence, irrefutably, had a great effect on the citizens of America in varying degrees. The revolution, of course, gave a free rein to unforeseen political revolutions which often spark social revolutions. However, the American Revolution has foreseen the beginning of an abolitionist movement for AfricanRead MoreThe American Revolution-Eight Long Years852 Words   |  4 PagesThe American Revolution, also known as the American Revolutionary War and the War of Independence, lasted from 1775 to 1783. It stemmed from growing tensions between England’s 13 North American colonies and the colonial government representing England, as well as cost sharing imposed on English colonies by successive governments in London for debts attributed to former wars (Foner, 2012). The †Å"cost sharing† encompassed a variety of measures including taxation on goods produced in the colonies,Read MoreA Letter to Abigail by John Adams, 897 Words   |  4 PagesJohn Adams, in a letter to Abigail Adams reflecting on the cost of war, stated, â€Å"Posterity, you will never know how much it cost the present generation to preserve your freedom. I hope you will make good use of it. If you do not, I shall repent in heaven that ever I took half the pains to preserve it† (The American Revolution, 2014). Although there were dozens of events that led to the revolution, it was freedom from British rule the colonists wanted; however, there would be a high price paid forRead MoreThe American Revolution1190 Words   |  5 Pages The Daughters of the American Revolution was founded with the intent to preserve American history. However what was the rationale behind the need for an organization of this kind? Because the Daughters of the American Revolution (D.A.R.) limit ed its membership to only descendants of participants in the war and created a focus on the importance of ancestry, leads the belief that there were another motivating factor behind an organization of this type. Influencing the founders of the D.A.R. wasRead MoreEssay on Comparison of the American and French Revolutions1022 Words   |  5 PagesComparison of the American and French Revolutions The American and French revolutions both compare and contrast in their origins and outcomes; both revolutions began due to the common peoples need to obtain independence and liberty from an oppressive government. The American Revolution was triggered by the American colonists need for financial independence from the overpowering nation of Great Britain, while the French revolution was a struggle to gain social equality among the masses. AlthoughRead MoreThe United States Struggle For Independence1407 Words   |  6 Pagesstruggle for independence was marked by the American Revolution war fought between Britain and the thirteen American colonies from the year 1775 to the year 1783. The war was sparked off because of a number of reasons, among them being the fact that Britain felt its American colonies were not playing their financial part as a colony and they were neither actively participating in the Anglo-French war. The fact that the French were defeated in this war boosted the co nfidence of the colonies in overthrowing

An Age Of Mass Hysteria - 1623 Words

An Age of Mass Hysteria: Salem in 1692 and 1693 Over 200 people were falsely accused of witchcraft from 1692 to 1693 in Salem, Massachusetts and 20 of those people were executed. Arthur Miller’s The Crucible follows a group of people in Salem and their struggle to find an answer that explains the tragedies of life through religion. Their faith plays such an influential role in their life that they use it to explain things that modern science would explain. They believe that the bad things that happen are due to the devil who is aided by witches. As the people of Salem struggle to define themselves as a town during their struggle between good and evil, they develop a sense of hysteria as waves of emotions and an alarming rate of new plot points rushes toward them every second. Arthur Miller creates an atmosphere of hysteria by constantly introducing new plot points and shifting who the reader trusts in order to accurately represent the time period. Arthur Miller wanted to creatively, but truthfully, tell the story of the Salem Witch Trials. By having to fulfill this goal, he creates a didactic tone throughout the novel. In order to achieve this, he needed to accurately represent, not only the facts of the time-period, but also give his readers an idea of what the general atmosphere would have been at the time. He provides commentary on the characters to further help the reader understand their personalities and guide them to make accurate judgments of each character: â€Å"OneShow MoreRelatedTheme Of Mass Hysteria In The Crucible1032 Words   |  5 Pagesfarmer incites the outset of mass hysteria in Salem, Massachusetts by convincing the villagers that witchcraft is being practiced by those in their midst. Mass hysteria is defined in Witchcraft and Mass Hysteria in Terms of Current Psychological Theories as â€Å"a phenomenon that transmits collective illusions of threats, whether real or imaginary, through a population in society as a result of rumors and fear† (Wolf 23-28). As written by Gary Small M.D. in â€Å"Mass Hysteria Can Strike Anywhere, Anytime†Read MoreThe Yellow Bird Spirit - analysis of Arthur Millers The Crucible play. Focuses on the yellow bird in Act II and how mass hysteria is achieved and the effects of such panic.1412 Words   |  6 Pagesbrilliantly comments on human morals, authority, and mass hysteria. He parallels the events of Salem in 1600s to the blacklisting and the discrimination against those who were labeled as a communist in America during the 1950s. He proficiently shows how mass hysteria could sweep an entire community like a tsunami and erase all logical thought and rationality. Especially in the yellow bird scene during Act III, he portrays how mass hysteria is achieved and the effects of such panic. Miller usesRead MoreRelationship between McCarthyism, Saudi Arabias War on Witchcraft, Moral Panic that Occured in Christian Nations and the Salem Witch Trials682 Words   |  3 Pagesabsurd hysteria amongst a populace. Though many at the time and even now viewed these acts as just which may be so since views differ from the individual and so forth. I wish to object to that view point since what one group desires may be harmful to the other and such primal behavior is un-civilized of the perpetrators. Many of you may not know of McCarthyism, basically McCarthyism was a period when a man named Joseph McCarthy caused a massive uproar of hysteria in the U.S.A. Mass hysteria in theRead Moreâ€Å"Red Alert Is The Colour Of Panic. Elevated To The Point1704 Words   |  7 Pagesfanatics And the neighborhood s a loaded gun Idle thought lead to full-throttle screaming And the welfare is asphyxiating Mass confusion is all the new age and it s creating a feeding ground for the bottom feeders of hysteria† American Eulogy by Green Day was written and released in 2009 giving their audience the feeling of what it is like to be in the middle of mass hysteria and trying to escape that life. Just as people felt During the Cold War and the Salem Witch Trials. The Crucible takes placeRead MoreSimilarities Between The Crucible And Salem Witch Trials725 Words   |  3 Pages factor that made him write the book. They were both witch hunts one literally one not so much a witch hunt as a communist hunt. Events in the play and events in McCarthyism are both very similar. A general thing that happened during both is hysteria, a mass feeling of fear in a way. They were both about people being accused of something their most likely not, communist or witches. Connections like these is what I think bring together these two subjects together. These are just some of the thingsRead MoreThe Salem Witch Trials And Mccarthyism782 Words   |  4 PagesGuantanamo Bay prison. Although the Salem Witch Trials and McCarthyism are differed in the fact that one was based on religion and the other was politically based, both events had striking similarities. In both events, innocent people were accused and mass hysteria was generated through public trials. As I previously mentioned, the Salem Witch Trials and McCarthyism were quite similar. For one, people were accused of practicing evil. During the Salem Witch Trials, residents were accused of being witches andRead MoreEssay about Witchcraft 1052 Words   |  5 PagesBeginning in the Middle Ages and through the seventeenth centuries, an infiltration of witchcraft persevered throughout Europe. The witch craze resulted in the torture and persecution of witches. More than 100,000 of witches who were tried were centered in the area of southwestern Europe. The mass hysteria of witches was denounced because of their rejection of God and their pact with the devil, which resulted in harsh punishments and accusations. One reason for the persecution of witches was theyRead MoreTheme Of Patriarchy In The Crucible1601 Words   |  7 Pagessociety and how it ties in the with The Crucible by Arthur Miller as well as how these became the reasons for this extreme case of mass hysteria. In the firs t section, I provide you with the traditions and beliefs of the Puritans to further educate you on the ways that a Puritanical society was run and how this could’ve possibly led to one of the worst cases of mass hysteria in its time. In the second section, I will provide you with information from the original Salem witch trials and the relationsRead MoreEssay about The Crucible by Arthur Miller981 Words   |  4 Pagesthis widespread hysteria. Realising that he has to prevent this hysteria from developing further was to write a play, in hope that the audience would see what the hidden meaning and message he was trying to portray, instead of being just a play. Many things in history can relate in different aspects. The comparison of the Salem Witch trials and McCarthyism are examples of things in history that show similarities. Looking at the two historical events, we can see that hysteria was ever-presentRead MoreWitchcraft Hysteria Of Salem, Massachusetts891 Words   |  4 Pagesis, until the 150 convictions and 19 executions of witches that took place in Salem, Massachusetts beginning in 1691 (Orr, September 30, 2015). Though the causes of the mania are still hotly debated even today, the primary cause of the witchcraft hysteria that captivated Salem, Massachusetts in the 1690’s was socioeconomic tensions within the community. The town of Salem was actually split up into two distinctly separate settlements. The village of Salem was characterized by farmers who depended

Glocalisation of Hip-Hop free essay sample

This essay will address both the homogeneous and hybrid aspects of hip-hop, arguing that true hip-hop must contain an element of localization. As authenticity underpins the very notion of hip-hop. II: Homogeneities v. S. Habitations Homogeneities in the context of hip-hop refers to artists around the globe subscribing to a global popular culture in their music, names and dress fashion in a process sometimes termed Americanization (Omni, 2006).Thus, In this Interpretation of hip-hop It Is not regarded as unique, but rather as simply producing American culture In other parts of the world, and furthermore an example of cultural imperialism (Dennis, 2006). In contrast, Habitations refers to the creative adaptation and strategic innovation (Dennis, 2006, p. 271) of traditional hip-hop, to better reflect and preserve aspects of a particular culture. This upholds the idea that hip-hop is a life-style rather than simply a musical genre (Omni, 2006, p. 03), meaning that hip-hop reflects local concerns and values rather than being globally uniform. We will write a custom essay sample on Glocalisation of Hip-Hop or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In essence, hyperinflation In the context of hip-hop Involves he melding of the global trends (such as the fashion and aspects of the music), with local issues so as to speak to the people (Motley Henderson, 2008). Ill: Hip- hop: origins Hip-hops origins are believed to date back to the late sasss, where the music was used as a form of self-expression by those in deprived New York neighborhoods (Anthropomorphous School, 2003).Since then the genre has grown substantially, with more than 50 million hip-hop fans In the united States and 100 million people worldwide consuming some form of hip-hop (Motley amp: Henderson. 2008). Thus, his rapid expansion has put into question the uniqueness of hip-hop, with some unsure about whether the genre is truly inventive or just another form of Americanization (Moony, 2006). V: Americanization Within society, there is a growing concern with the Idea of Americanization as more and more of the worlds youth turn to hip-hop (Dennis, 2006). The rampant proliferation of U. S. IP-hop and rap, and Its subsequent acceptance and appropriation as cultural forms of expression in Colombia, signal an increase in mass-mediated, transnational cultural contact in great part due to new technological advances in communication systems that facilitate the exportation of U. S. Popular culture (Dennis, 2006, p. 279). Thus, these technological advances could be in reference to not only the expansion of music over the radio, but perhaps more Although MET is probably considered by most western youth as of concern only to those of the western world, in Africa alone MET has at least 100 channels (Omni, 2006).This effectively highlights the significant influence of American music over the world. A further issue to explore in relation to homogeneities is the widespread lobar use of American English (Anthropomorphous School, 2003). An example of American English is effectively exemplified by U. S. Negro artist Snoop Dog in his song For all my Inning Bitched. Here, Snoop utilizes words such as Amiga, motherhoods, bitched and sit whilst describing gangster life which appears to encompass sex, violence, drug use and male supremacy. This kind of American English is not unique to the U. S. Being furthermore found in European rap. More than 60 percent of German, French and Italian songs studied have English elements and draw on U. S. IP-hop slang by including words such as pitch, blunt Anoint), and sit in their lyrics (Anthropomorphous School, 2003, p. 473). This was also observed by Clarke Hassock (2009) as they studied a white Canadian rap group called Gazebo Unit.Findings indicated that there was a general absence of vernacular local linguistic features; instead favoring American-like pronunciations whilst also referring to drug use, sex and violence against women. V: Habitations: same, same But different Whilst it is noted that there are honeymooning aspects and examples of hip-hop cross the globe, true hip-hop must contain an element of localization as authenticity underpins the very notion of the genre (Motley Henderson, 2008). While the core essence and elements of hip-hop are shared by all members of the hip-hop culture, the aesthetic is adapted to suit multiple national cultures, localized conditions and grievances (Motley Henderson, 2008, p. 248). Anthropomorphous School (2003) outline how the formation of new cultural territory involves undergoing three main phases. The starting point is De-territorialitys, which is the extraction of cultural pattern from its original social context (p. 467).The middle phase involves cultural melding and mediation through three cultural interactions: transfiguration, Habitations, and indigestion. Transfiguration is described as a process in which cultural forms literally move through time and space where they interact with other cultural forms, influence each other, and produce new forms (Industriously ; School, 2003, p. 467). Habitations follows, whereby new and familiar cultural forms mix together; finally resulting in indigested music. Thus, the final endpoint is re-territorialitys as there is an integration of this new cultural pattern into society.Thus, Mitchell (2003) article titled Doing damage in my native language addresses this issue of De-territorialitys, describing how marginalia groups of a population utilize resistance vernaculars in order to express their situation. Mitchell draws on Potters affirmation that African-American rappers deform the language of the dominant class and look more towards the language and consciousness of the ghetto in search of a more authentically black identity (Mitchell, 2003, p. 3). Hence, hip-hop can be understood as giving a voice to the voiceless and is predominantly utilizes by marginals groups (Motley ; Henderson, 2008).This idea can be noted in the music of Maori group Upper Hut Posse, as they draw on the global elements of hip-hop and effectively combine them Dean Happen (D word) affirms this, stating although I love and respect hip-hop, being Maori I only take from it what doesnt compromise my own culture. But in spite of this I have found them both very compatible (Mitchell, 2003, p. 13). Thus, the group imbibe the use of the traditional Maori instruments, raga inclinations, funk bass rhythms and hardcore-giants-style rapping to create their music (Mitchell, 2003).One of the focal concerns of their music is the inequality that the Maori people experience, having a strong musical, political and cultural resonance in Tearoom (New Zealand). Upper Hut Posse are an excellent example of the Habitations of hip-hop as they are truly unique, with the misogynistic, derogatory aspects of hip-hop completely absent from their music as the well as the fact that they also rap in their dative language (as well as English) (Mitchell, 2003).A further example that effectively illustrates how hip-hop is thoroughly hybridism is from white Australian group Hilltop Hoods. The group raps about personal struggles and frustrations, such as dropping out of school, coming from a low socio-economic status and do mestic abuse. 1. 1 . Extract: The Hard road by Hilltop Hoods I spent my youth like life was cheap, The only change that I wanted was enough to buy a drink, Was on a path to nowhere, the harder the road, The more broken baggage we carry the larger the load,This school drop-out got knocked out, chased by the cops out, Got clout, dumped by my girlfriend and locked out, Been broke and beaten, even chocked at being, A dope ms but never lost hope in dreaming, We used to thrash boosted cars till the engine would fail, If I never had bailed maybe Id be dead or in Jail, And man I got no one else to blame, I thank my family and music for keeping me sane, But thats the breaks right? Started working late nights, Never seeing daylight, getting paid like a slave might, And Vive done too many years to miss this for my missus, To have to tell my son he nearly never existed.A key point to make when observing this group is that whilst hip-hop origins are with African-Americans, white people may still express their inequality through hip-hop. Once again, the derogatory aspects of hip-hop are absent from this group and the vernacular follows Australian rather than American English. Thus, these examples effectively illustrate that although artists are influenced and inspired by African American origins, hip-hop is extremely malleable and is adapted to speak to people from multiple national cultures and localized socioeconomic and political conditions Motley ; Henderson, 2008).

View of faustus free essay sample

Doctor Faustus can be seen as either a romantic rebel or a damning folly. We will write a custom essay sample on View of faustus or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This excerpt, â€Å"His waxen wings did mount above his reach, And, melting, Heavens conspir’d his overthrow,† makes a reference to Icarus, which is a story told about a man named Icarus and his attempt to escape Crete using wings that his father had made out of feathers and wax. Icarus ignored instructions not to fly too close to the sun, and his wax wings melted and caused him to fall into the sea where he drowned. The main theme of Icarus is the structure and consequence of personal over-ambition, which can relate very closely to Faustus’s tale, because it is Faustus’s over-ambition that damns him to an eternal suffering. This reference to a man who damned himself to a watery grave, leads me to believe that Doctor Faustus is meant to be perceived as a damning folly. Faustus appears to be a romantic rebel in this excerpt, â€Å"When Mephistophilis shall stand by me, What God can hurt thee, Faustus? Thou art safe. Doctor Faustus completely denies God and claims that he cannot be hurt by God. In saying this, Faustus rebels against God and all of his glory, and he appears to be a romantic rebel, but then he once again damns himself further. â€Å"I cut mine arm, and with my proper blood Assure my soul to be great Lucifer’s†¦ My blood congeals, and I can write no more†¦ So now the blood begins to clear again; Now will I make an end immediately [Writes]† In this passage, Faustus cuts his arm to be able to sign his name in blood to give his soul to the devil. When his own body tells him to stop by clotting, he ignores this warning, heats his wound to make the blood flow again, and continues to seal his fate by signing his soul over to Lucifer. Doctor Faustus time and time again proves himself to be a prime example of a damning folly. Faustus is constantly conflicted between two angels, one good and one bad. The good angel tells him to repent but Faustus refuses. Faustus, repent; yet God will pity thee†¦ My heart’s so hard’ned I cannot repent. Scarce can I name salvation, faith, or heaven, But fearful echoes thunder in mine ears â€Å"Faustus, thou art damn’d! † All Faustus had to do was repent, and he would have been saved. Faustus denies his only way of being saved when he refuses to repent and be saved by God. Faustus fears that it is too late to repent, because of what the evil angel tells him. He ignores the truth that the good angel tells him and therefore damns himself further. Faustus does make one small attempt at repenting but takes it immediately back. â€Å"I do repent; and yet I do despair†¦ Thou traitor, Faustus, I arrest thy soul†¦ Sweet Mephistophilis, entreat thy lord To pardon my unjust presumption. And with my blood again I will confirm My former vow I made to Lucifer. † And with that, Faustus fulfills his role of the damning folly.

An analysis of the Luncheon of the boating party

An analysis of the Luncheon of the boating party Introduction The painting titled Luncheon of the Boating Party by Pierre Augusta Renoir was done in the year 1881. This painting was guided by real life models all of whom being Renoir’s friends who had gathered on the balcony of the Maison Fournaise , a boat commonly found in Chatou, France. The boat was floating along the Seine River and it apart from the roof, its balcony was basically open to an impressive view.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on An analysis of the Luncheon of the boating party specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Subject matter Pierre Augusta Renoir was an impressionist whose works mostly feature his close friends. The Luncheon of the Boating Party is no different and it includes approximately fourteen individuals. Some of the most prominent characters as from the painting include: Gustave Caillebotte-this was a fellow artist and a close friend to Renoir. He later came to be the custodian of the painting. From the work, he is seated in the forefront wearing a white singlet. He was a revered impressionist and was also a determined boater. Aline Charigot-this is the lady seated in the foreground wearing a black dress. In the painting she is playing with a small black dog. She would later get married to Renoir. Charles Ephrussi This was one of Renoir’s wealthy friends and he was an amateur art historian. He was also a collector and at times doubled up as the senior editor of a magazine called the Gazette des Beaux-Arts. In the painting, he is in the far background sporting a black top hat and, white shirt and a black coat. Jules Laforgue this was Ephrussi’s personal secretary who also happened to possess some poetic skills. He sometimes took on the role of an art critic. Though it has not been confirmed, he is suspected to be the young man dressed casually in a brown jacket and speaking to Ephrussi in the background. In the middle of the composition is an actres s known as Ellen Andrà ©e. She is the one drinking from a glass and she sits directly opposite Raoul Barbier; a baron who happened to be Renoir’s friend.Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Louise-Alphonsine she is positioned in the periphery of the composition, to the left of the painting and she has a traditional straw boater on her head. She is bent over the railing of the balcony, smiling and she is supporting her head in her right hand. Alphonsine Fournaise, Jr.-This is Louise’s brother and he is standing next to his sister also wearing a traditional straw bloater. He is the one who took care of the boat rental he is the leftmost character in the painting. Eugà ¨ne Pierre Lestringez-he is wearing a boater and is positioned to the right of the composition in the right hand corner. Paul Lhote-This was Lestringez’s close friend and he was also an ar tist. In the painting he is placed next to Lestringez and they both have been depicted flirting with Jeanne Samary-an actress. Visual characteristics The positioning of the artist was such that he was able to achieve a well balanced painting aside from capitalizing on the dispersion of light to obtain clear and appealing images. The light was also used to capture the mood of the event and Renoir made sure that he used all available reflectors to ensure that the painting was evenly lit. From what we can pick out of the painting, the light mostly came from an opening to the side of the balcony. In order to ensure that the light was evenly spread across the entire composition, Renoir used the white singlets of the two men as well as the large tablecloth in the foreground to disperse it as per his requirements. In order to obtain a well spaced composition and still illustrate the celebratory mood of the event, Renoir made an effort to ensure that he could get in as many characters as p ossible in the background and then put fewer individuals in the foreground. By so doing, the painting developed some element of space without making the party look empty.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on An analysis of the Luncheon of the boating party specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As far as the usage of color is concerned, the artist made sure that white colors stood prominently in the foreground, middle-ground and background of the painting. This was contrasted by an almost uniform usage of black colors in order to avoid a bleaching effect. The usage of color in this painting is most impressive with the background having some lighter tones and the foreground bearing some darker shades bring about the element of distance from the balcony to the trees in the far background. Mood The mood of the painting is celebratory, with the artist trying to illustrate that characters presented in the composition were having a good time. aside from the strategic use of light and color, Renoir managed to lighten the mood of the scene by properly capturing the happy looks on the faces of the characters as well as ensure that the positioning of the characters was in such a way that it depicted some sense of interaction. Personal involvement with the painting Initially, my attention to the painting was almost drawn to focus on the three characters in the right foreground of the composition. At first I thought that the man wearing a white shirt and a black tie, and leaning in towards the two seated characters was a waiter taking an order. It is only after focusing on the literature and paying further attention to the entire scenario that I was able to figure out that this was a boat. The lady playing with the dog (Aline Charigot), also captured my attention and I kept wondering why she had chosen to ignore the bulky man in a white singlet next to her, and instead focus her attention to the dog. After completi ng the assignment I was also in a position to notice more individuals in the background and even appreciate the various interactions at the time of the party. I definitely agree with the book authors that participation and analysis enhance a viewer’s appreciation of art. This is because from the personal experience in this project, I was able to see much more from the work of art after I was done with the analysis than the first time I looked at the painting. Artistic form, subject matter and content work together to send out the desire message of a composition. From this analytical experience, it is easy to notice how the three work together. The painting would not have relayed the same message had the colors and lighting been ignored or if Renoir had chosen to ignore the importance of balancing the subjects in the work.

Reflective Essay on American Literature

Reflective Essay on American Literature Reflective Essay on American Literature American literature is very rich in the past historical events that took place on this great continent. Many of the past generations witnessed the turnout of events from the time the continent was not yet independent to the time it became a sovereign entity. There were so many battles that were fought to build this country. For instance, the long and great Civil War in America took place from 1861-1865. Struggles took place off the battle field, as well. African Americans and the American Indians had to fight for their rights to be recognized. This is evident because there was no black national leader until recently when Obama was elected as the first African American president. American minority groups were deprived of their rights until in the 1960s when there was a federal registration enforcement of the Constitution that helped this group to have their rights protected. Many groups of Americans are responsible for writing American literature. The literature is valuable in letting generations know about their past and what their ancestors went through to build this great nation. American literature consists of many themes within a wide range of genres. The various groups that have dwelt in American contribute highly to the rich literature that is preserved in written and oral literature. Patriotic songs have been sung for generations and they, too, help to keep the literature of American alive and vibrant. Children sit by their grandparents’ side to listen to songs and stories about earlier America and how it evolved into make a world power. During the early of the 20th century, America became the world’s greatest power because of its entrepreneurship. In addition, there were numerous immigrants coming to the country who provided cheap labor. Being so rich in natural resources, the country was able to acquire an adequate amount of raw materials domestically for its industries producing many manufactured goods that were utilized domestically as well as exported. This contributed greatly to the thriving America economy. Certainly, America has com e far during the past 250 years and will continue to thrive. American literature is studied worldwide because America is a global power. As such, it has much influence on the political, social and economic factors of other countries. American literature is everywhere: in books, on stage, in the movies, in the lyrics set to music. Many of the world’s favorite authors come from America, and their written literature reflects much about the history and culture of America. Libraries are great places to find literature by all the great American writers. How to Write a Reflective Essay on American Literature: The purpose of a reflective essay is for the writer to examine his own growth in some way, such as being a student in a course. Because of the nature of the essay, it is not necessary to develop a thesis statement. Furthermore, writing in the first person â€Å"I† is acceptable. The writer examines his goals and his progress in achieving those goals. In addition, he identifies and discusses his strengths and weaknesses. If his reflection centers on his progress as a student, for example, he can discuss what he knew before entering the course, what he has gained from his experience in the course, and what interests might guide his future studies because of his participation in that course. In addition, he can discuss how he has grown as a student through participating in that course. For example, he might have discovered what works best for him in studying or retaining information or developing or comprehending a concept. Finally, the writer does not simply tell the reader how he has grown as a student. Instead, he shows it by providing examples of what he did or explanations of his thought process. In conclusion, the writer reminds the reader of how he has grown as a student. Feel free to contact writing company to get professional essay help from PhD and Masters degree writers. 100% original reflective essays with timely delivery.

Literature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 6

Literature - Essay Example In fact, children’s literature is a tool for cultural transmission and they reveal and are illuminated by the values of the time in which they were written. This paper seeks to explore Hollindale’s concept of the reader as an ideologist and the idea that meaning is inevitably inferential in a text is explored with special reference to Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. One should have a thorough theoretical background of Peter Hollindale’s concepts of how ideology is at work in Children’s book. For Hollindale, ideology operates at three different levels within texts: explicit ideology (which includes the values and beliefs that the author consciously intends in the text), implicit ideology (unexamined values which the author is unaware of conveying), and the ideologies of the dominant culture (widely accepted values of the dominant culture that prevails in the given time and place of the text). These three levels of ideology are at work in any piece of texts and no doubt the reader’s perception of the text is very much affected by the level these ideologies occur. In this respect, Trites (2000, p. 70) observes how Hollindale â€Å"distinguishes explicit textual ideology from implicit textual ideology by asking us to investigate the messages the author intends to communicate in conjunction with those he communicates passively as â€Å"unexamined assumptions†; thus, for Hollindale the text communicates two opposing levels of ideology-one that the text explicitly states or implies directly and the other and inferred by the reader in the text. Thus, the implied meaning comes from the author whereas the inferred meaning originates from the reader and can vary from one reader to another depending on how one perceives the text. The authorial intended meaning dominated literary criticism in the past and theorists were preoccupied with the implied meaning that the

Bilingualism and diglossia Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Bilingualism and diglossia - Assignment Example I will look closely at classic and extended diglossia, diglossia as a continuum, touch upon diglossia within the context of language shift and relationship between diglossia and language varieties. I will incorporate critical opinions of distinguished researchers within the framework of the discussion to provide consistency and comprehensiveness of the analysis and illustrate differences and similarities between diglossia and bilingualism with a number of examples of the way people interact within communities of such countries as Switzerland, Germany, Italy or New Zealand. Whether diglossia is really a kind of bilingualism is disputed. While a number of researchers categorize diglossia exclusively within the framework of bilingualism, others, to the contrary, treat diglossia and bilingualism as two separate linguistic phenomena in their own right, which tend to overlap each other. In this essay I will touch upon some aspects of diglossia within the context of its relation to bilingualism referring to the studies of the researchers who stress on both similarities and differences between diglossia and bilingualism. According to Charles Ferguson, who first introduced the notion of diglossia into linguistic discourse in 1959, diglossia and bilingualism are closely related notions (Ferguson, 1959). Diglossia is a widespread sociolinguistic phenomenon that applies to a situation within the framework of one speech community, when speakers use two or more language varieties depending on communicative context switching from either local dialect to the literary standard language or vice versa (Ferguson, 1959). For instance, a speaker may use a local dialect of Italian language when communicating to his/her family members at home or friends in informal atmosphere and switch to the literary standard Italian during public speech in formal atmosphere or during a conversation with compatriots from other regions of Italy. It must be noted that according to Ferguson, diglossia is

High school Essay Example for Free

High school Essay Sports influence life of peoples and nations , and play an important role and essential part for people on daily basis by creating an atmosphere full cooperation and affiliation, and strengthen the social ties for being an integral part of the public education process. Studies show that regular physical activity with healthy eating habits, is considered the most effective and healthy weight control. Whether trying to lose weight or maintain it. It doesn’t matter what kind of physical activity that an individual make, whether by participating in sports, doing daily house task , or business-related work. Participating in Sports have big impact on acquiring the ability to understand oneself and others, and how to deal with them and a sense of responsibility in building social relations and development for society as a whole. Sports connect individuals by feeling their mental and physical abilities. In brief, research have indicated the correlation between physical activities and undergraduate/ high school students for different age group. The benefits of being involved in sports and the degree of influence on student’s grades, by reducing anxiety caused by psychological and social troubles despite the time consumed in performing the activity. This refers to find the right balance between sports and studies. Introduction â€Å"Asound mind in a sound body, is a short, but full description of a happy state in this World: he that has these two, has little more to wish for; and he that wants either of them, will be little the better for anything else. † (John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, 1693). Sports considered part of recreational activities, which allow many opportunities to the individual to play the role more effectively through exercises that can take positive advantage of the physical skills Intellectual ability. Regular exercise helps protect from heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure, insulin-independent diabetes, obesity, back pain, osteoporosis, and can also improve your mood and prevent life pressures. Exercises also increase the good cholesterol HDL in the body and reduces LDL cholesterol and improve the flow of blood, and increase the ability to work under pressure . Experts advise a workout of 20-30 minutes three times or more per week, and perform muscle exercises at least twice a week. Sports and students In sports, most people often see advantages in just building shapes. However, there are also many social and individual advantages. Participating in physical activities one of the most fulfilling encounters students can have. While meanings taught in sporting can be precious, in an age when skilled sportsmen are forsaken college for the sake of engaging in contracts worth large figures. Most university sportsmen never achieve the high end, and the ones who do are normally done enjoying by age 33. Keeping the self-discipline to execute well on the stage as well as in the class room can set you up for success long after your enjoying days are over. Sports educate learners the idea of group connections â€Å"there is no I in team†. Sports help learners realize that cooperating as a group means more achievements, and the projects that they will work towards become a lot easier. Teamwork even moves into the class room for group projects. It is important for learners to learn how to work together to achieve a objective. Just like in sports, if your team mate is having difficulties, you help them pick up the slack to get to your objective. In the class room, this might mean that they create an additional page of an task for a group or make an additional glide for a venture. Being a member of a group whether it be golf ball, beach ball, or even in a class room can be a very fulfilling encounter for all learners. Benefits of participating in physical activities Improving health and exerting students’ surplus energies. Obeying the competition or societal rules and constraining delinquent behaviors (such as cheating, acting violently, consuming illegal substances, and drinking excessive alcohol, etc) Promoting societal values, integrity and building character Enhancing confidence, motivation, sense of empowerment, and self-esteem Providing social interaction, fun and enjoyment Offering opportunities for education and career in sports Expanding life experience and making more friends Knowing how to deal with failure and difficult situation Developing life-skills (Blinde, Taub, Han, 1993; Coakley, 2007; Eitzen Sage, 2008; Hudson, 2000; JOPERD, 2004; Shaffer, Wittes, 2006; Woods, 2006; Woodruff Schallert, 2008). Sports in High Schools Academic qualifications for student-athletes in public high schools fitness activities has many variations and has been changing over the past many decades. But how far have we come in motivating sportsmen in the classroom? The term student-athlete implies that the person engaged with education and sporting is both a good student in the class room and an active and effective individual on an fitness team. In theory, academic proficiency is a requirements for fitness contribution. It has been proven that high schools sportsmen usually have a greater GPA than non sportsmen (Eitzen Tale, 1993). As school regions and fitness administrators work to show responsibility to the mother and father in their respective communities through the modification of fitness codes, it is essential address the issue of student sportsman academic performance. Efforts to change academic qualifications for high schools sportsmen began in 1983, amongst powerful resistance from trainers, mother and father, and others (Wolf, 1983). In 1984 the condition of Texas introduced a No Pass No Play rule that mentioned that sportsmen could not have any failing qualities if they were to join in a sporting action (Richards, 1987). A specialist selected 125 great schools across 48 declares and compared their specifications for fitness qualifications. The focus was on four specific academic qualifications areas: 1. Minimum personal GPA for fitness contribution. 2. Maximum variety of Fs that an sportsman can have and still take part. 3. The time period for athletic-academic revocation for sportsmen that dont achieve the lowest specifications. 4. A sticking to personal condition association guidelines for academic qualifications. As this research indicates, only a tiny proportion of great schools in the United States have attached a lowest GPA to their academic specifications for fitness qualifications. The tutorial institutions that had minimal requirements justified these requirements by stating that sporting keep children in school; if they were not qualified to join in sporting, these learners would drop out. Some of the schools in the research indicated that they incorporated a quality factor to their qualifications but later removed this requirements from their fitness code because of opposition from trainers and mother and father. Additional justifications from fitness administrators protecting low academic specifications included that fitness applications must remain student-friendly and that all learners, regardless of what their qualities, should have the right to join. A variety of fitness administrators revealed that they would like to have even reduced academic specifications than those already in position. In schools that had powerful academic specifications, fitness administrators revealed learners modified to the specifications once they were set in position. One fitness director mentioned that children know what the lowest GPA is to be qualified so they will do what is required. In fact, he even thought that they could raise the quality factor to 2. 5 and the student-athletes would adjust in an issue of your energy and effort. One high school in Canada that had a lowest GPA of 2. 5 maintained the right to hold an sportsman out if the trainers felt that the student-athlete was not performing up to his or her prospective, even if the grade that the student maintained is 3. 0. When public schools educational applications are under heavy analysis, fitness applications with low academic requirements are only harming themselves by letting their sportsmen just get by. The fitness applications in this research that have challenged their learners in the class room with greater academic requirements over a many decades have been successful in improving the quality of factor earnings. Students modified to the educational demands set by the fitness applications and the variety of learners that were announced ineligible was consistent with the variety that were announced ineligible under the reduced academic requirement. Scholarship or grant Availability Most universities provide money to sportsmen in the form of educational grants. With 3. 1 million secondary university graduate students this year and only 450,000 of those playing college fitness programs, qualities play a part in obtaining grants and financial aid unless you are being enrolled by an upper-tier institution. College sports and students College activities have progressively become a fundamental element of college student lifestyle. As viewers or through direct contribution, college activities can impact learners in many different ways. Physical teachers and game experts would agree that fitness contribution brings numerous physical, emotional, educational and community advantages to the members. More specifically, many positive educational advantages were discovered to be associated with intercollegiate game contribution. Research supported that college student-athletes were often more engaged in academic and university activities than their non-athlete peers (Wolniak, Pierson, Pascarella, 2001). Student-athletes were also more likely to exchange discovered life and perform abilities, self-esteem and personality (i. e. , reliability and work-ethics) into their selected profession areas (Weis, 2007). In addition, effective fitness programs that continually win more games entice student-athletes and non-student-athletes with higher academic ratings, hence helping the instructors of the organization as a whole. (Mixon, Trevino, Minto, 2004). Because there are so many academic advantages associated with fitness contribution, Valente (2006), a lecturer of songs, mentioned that her songs learners could certainly learn about abilities and features such as goal establishing techniques, exercising carefully and being on time from student-athletes. In comparison to the advantages of fitness contribution, several specific research analyzing the effect of fitness contribution on intellectual studying of college student-athletes review different results in resistance to the advantages that are detailed in these passage. These data indicated that fitness contribution had either adverse organization or no effect on male college student-athletes’ academic inspiration, development, and studying ability Wolniak, Pierson, Pascarella, 2001). Other research also found that learners who took part in intercollegiate sporting did not have a better GPA or greater results in intellectual studying and inspiration (Wolniak et al. , 2001) in comparison to those learners who were not sportsmen. Therefore, this indicates that the literary works facilitates the idea that college sporting in fact does have many advantages to the individual sportsman and organization, but the level to which the effect goes may not be concretely identified. The question that follows then is: will there be any damaging emotional or physical? Effect if an sportsman displays a advanced level of fitness identification and game commitment? Obviously, sportsmen with a strong fitness identification might tend to ignore other factors of lifestyle in order to meet up with their sportsman role, which can increase the danger of public problems. The scores of comparative importance of two life-roles extracurricular actions and relationship were found to be extremely low for a group of sportsmen. However, indicated that top level race sportsmen did not have the same ranking. This may indicate that some sportsmen are still able to balance their public and fitness lifestyle without suffering from emotional problems. Also added that the student-athletes at females universities were more involved in instructors, yet did not vary in how long spent in extracurricular actions and in the quantity of student participation. This may suggest that living a w ell-balanced educational, public, and fitness lifestyle can possibly be possible philosophy. In addition to community issues, research that student-athletes often begin their college profession with vague or nonexistent profession objectives and spend heavily in their fitness positions (Lally Kerr, 2005; Burns Kerr, 2003). They handle with dual-role details, full-time sportsman and full-time college student, at the same time in their early college decades. As they become upperclassmen and complete their enjoying qualifications, they progressively choose to spend money on the latter identification fully to explore non-sport profession options (Wiechman Bill, 1997). This suggestion may imply that student-athletes don’t necessarily view enjoying game as the most essential or the only essential action in their lives. Exercises female students Crawford and Eklund (1994) found that highly whole body anxious female college students preferred work out settings that deemphasized the whole body. Hart (1991) reported that highly whole body anxious students tended to exhibit more protective work out behaviors (e. g. , positioning themselves in the back of an work out class, wearing loose fitting clothing) than did their less anxious peers. Having demonstrated that female students social whole body stress is reduced and that whole body esteem is enhanced with participation in a university-based workout program, it may be useful to begin exploring potential mediators of this effect. One possibility is that participation in fitness classes leads to familiarity with work out settings, which, in turn, reduces stress. This reduced stress may lead to a change in exercisers whole body concerns regardless of their actual figure. If familiarity with work out settings per se is found to be one of the main components of work out related stress reduction, then development of work out settings that reduce participants social whole body stress would be warranted. Another possibility is that changes in social whole body stress and whole body esteem occur mainly as a result of changes in various whole body measures (e. g. , weight, human extra fat, whole body size). Although McAuley et al. (1995) found involvement in work out classes to be associated with changes in figure and social whole body stress, other researchers (Blessing, Wilson, Puckett, Ford, 1987; Ford, Puckett, Blessing, Tucker, 1989) have found no significant changes in the bodyweight or whole body composition of female college students participating in aerobic dance classes over an eight-week period. It is also possible that changes in social whole body stress are associated with changes in other psychological factors such as self-concept. McInman and Berger (1993) found exercisers with high and low social whole body stress differed in terms of self-concept. Perhaps changes in self-concept associated with work out are reflected in concomitant changes in social whole body stress. Research methodology : My research methodology requires gathering relevant data from the specified documents and compiling databases in order to analyze the material and arrive at a more complete understanding and historical reconstruction of Sport. I hope to shed light on the following questions through my research: 1) Which category below includes your age 2) Please select your gender 3) Employment Status: Are you currently†¦? 4) Are you enrolled in†¦? 5) What program are you currently registered for? 6) Your current GPA is between 7) On how many occasions do you participate in sports and physical activities a week? 8) If no, what would be the reason for not participating in sports and physical activities? 9) If so, do you participate on sports organized by the university? 10) Do you find sports and physical activities handy to your studies While giving the research paper for students some of them were interested some of them no I also give for students outside AUE, I gave for Middlesex University after finishing the research paper and collecting data I started to put it on Microsoft Excel. Here is the charts showing the percentage of each Q’s: Conclusion In conclusion, activities impact not on students alone, but also in many other parties involved as well. Participation in any physical programs is a great way to get engaged and understand useful life training. Sports is something many people will never ignore. Most learners will never perform an structured game again after secondary university. Comprising your colleagues, your group, and your university has an amazing beneficial impact on any youngster. References Ghassan Mohammed Sadiq Fatima Yassin Al Hashimi. . (Mosul, Library for printing and publishing. Page 10 (1988). Eitzen, S. Sage, G. (1989) Sociology of North American Sport, 4th edition. Dubuque, Iowa: WM. C. Brown Publishers. Eitzen, S. Saga, G. (1993). Sociology of North American Sport, Dubuque, Iowa:WM. C. Brown Publishers. 4th edition. McGrath, E. (1984). Blowing the whistle on Johnny,@ Time 30 January p. 80. Richards, D. (1987). No-pass pulse, Dallas Morning News 6 October 1987, pp. B1, B14. Wolf, C. (1983). Playing for keeps, New York Times Magazine, 30 October 1983, pp. 32-53 Blinde, E. M. , Diane E. Taub, D. E. , and Han, L. (1993). Sport participation and womens personal empowerment: Experiences of the college athlete. Journal of Sport Social Issues, 17, 47-60. Coakley, J. (2007). Sport in society: Issues and controversies (9th ed. ). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Hudson, A. (2000). Effects of athletic involvement on the social life: A study of 68 track and field athletes. Unpublished manuscript. JOPERD (2004). Benefits of high school athletic participation. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation Dance, 75(7), 10. Shaffer, D. R. , Wittes, E. (2006). Women’s precollege sports participation, enjoyment of sports, and self-esteem. Sex Roles, 55(3/4), 225-232. Woods, R. B. (2006). Social issues in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Woodruff, A. L. , Schallert, D. L. (2008). Studying to play, playing to study: Nine college student-athletes’ motivational sense of self. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33(1), 34-57. Eitzen, S. , Sage, G. (2008). Sociology of North American Sport (8th ed. ). Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers. Crawford, S, Eklund, R. C. (1994). Social physique anxiety, reasons for exercise, and attitudes toward exercise settings. Journal of Sport Exercise Psychology, 16, 70-82. Hart, E. (1991, October). The influence of exercise experience on social physique anxiety and exercise behavior. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology Savannah GA. McAuley, E. , Bane, S. M. , Mihalko, S. L. (1995). Exercise in middle-aged adults: Self-efficacy and self-presentational outcomes. Preventive Medicine, 24, 319-328. Blessing, D. L. , Wilson, G. D. , Puckett, J. R. , Ford, H. T. (1987). The physiological effects of eight weeks of aerobic dance with and without hand-held weights. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 15, 508-510. Mclnman, A. D. , Berger, B. G. (1993). Self-concept and mood changes associated with aerobic dance. Australian Journal of Psychology, 45, 134-140.

Beloved :: essays research papers

Beloved is a novel set in Ohio during 1873, several years after the Civil War. The book centers on characters that struggle to keep their painful recollections of the past at bay. The whole story revolves around issues of race, gender, family relationships and the supernatural, covering two generations and three decades up to the 19th century. Concentrating on events arising from the Fugitive Slave Act of 1856, it describes the consequences of an escape from slavery for Sethe, her children and Paul D. The narrative begins 18 years after Sethe's break for freedom. The women in the house knew it and so did the children...by 1873 Sethe and her daughter Denver were its only victims". The novel is divided into three parts. Each part opens with statements to indicate the progress of the haunting--from the poltergeist to the materialized spirit to the final freeing of both the spirit and Sethe. These parts reflect the progressive of a betrayed child and her desperate mother. Overall s ymbolizing the gradual acceptance of freedom and the enormous work and continuous struggle that would persist for the next 100 years. Events that occurred prior and during the 18 years of Sethe's freedom are slowly revealed and pieced together throughout the novel. Painfully, Sethe is in need of rebuilding her identity and remembering the past and her origins: "Some things just stay. I used to think it was my rememory. You know. Some things you forget. Other things you never do. But it's not. Places, places, are still there. If a house burns down it's gone, but the place--the picture of it--stays, and not just in rememory, but out there in the world". Baby Suggs' horror at her grandchild's murder is displayed: "Baby Suggs had got the boys inside and was bathing their heads, rubbing their hands, lifting their lids, whispering, Within this horror, the insensitivity of her landlord is shown when Baby Suggs is approached by her landlord's kids regarding fixing some shoes, not knowing and not caring to know they just give her the shoes: "Baby Suggs ... She took the shoes from him...saying, 'I beg your pardon. Lord, I beg your pardon. I sure do" Paul D's memories of Sweet Home are remembered to confront his and Sethe's past: "Paul D smiled then, remembering the bedding dress. Sethe was thirteen when she came to Sweet Home and already iron-eyed" these various voices act as witnesses to Sethe's experiences and showing how black women had no control over their husbands, children or own bodies.

Labour Reforms in Brazil and Chile (a Comparative Study)

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY COURSE COMPARATIVE INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS (MIR 709) TOPIC LABOUR REFORMS IN BRAZIL AND CHILE (A COMPARATIVE STUDY) A PAPER SUBMITTED TO THE DEPT OF SOCIOLOGY BY GROUP 4 Adepoju Janet Oluwatosin167455 Ayangbemi Olusola Temitope166905 Dagunduro Adebukola Olufunke167457 Ogunsemoyin Olubusayo B. 81014 LECTURER IN CHARGE: PROF. ONYEONORU P. I. OCTOBER, 2012 INTRODUCTION Labour laws is defined as the balance of power among government, employers, workers, and unions.The redrafting of a country’s labour laws typically reflects a shift in the power relations and may carry unfavourable consequences for a former beneficiaries. As the Colliers put it, â€Å"Labour law is a highly visible and concrete policy statement around which political battles are fought, won, and lost, and around which political support is attracted, granted, and withheld†¦ labour law thus provides a valuable point of reference for analyzing the larger political contex t† (Collier and Collier 1979, 971). The reform of national labour laws is one of the most widely implemented recent policy changes in the world.Since the early 1990s, Brazil as well as Chile have changed their labour laws. Labour reforms have also provoked massive protests, including general strikes. It can be understood that the changes in labour law occurring on a global scale are themselves a response to the pressure of globalization. In most nations of the world, labour legislation was originally made to reflect government-employer-worker relationships embedded in protected national economies. But in recent years, trade liberalization and greater global competitiveness have created new challenges for employers and workers.Pressures for legal and institutional change have naturally followed. This study is all about comparative insights into labour reform processes at the end of the twentieth century of two Latin American countries, Brazil and Chile. Despite similar initial prescriptions for change in the direction of greater flexibility, the outcomes of labour reforms differed in the two countries. In the 1990s, moderate flexibility reforms were implemented in Brazil while in Chile, changes in labour law was extensive.THE LATIN AMERICAN CONTEXT The region followed a common import substituting industrialization (ISI) model in the post-war period. This development strategy reshaped the Latin American economies, societies and institutions. While traditional interest groups linked to the primary sectors reduced their political influence, new social groups with interests in the local industries gained social and political strength. After some time, this inward-oriented development strategy began to show clear signs of exhaustion.The performance of Latin American countries was not good enough compared with the South-East Asian countries that claimed to adopt an almost opposite economic model. The political support of the ISI model was gradually eroding in L atin America when the debt crisis unleashed in 1982 and the failure of early policies implemented by some countries to deal with it played an important role in reshaping policy views in the region. Latin America of course is not homogeneous, but there are some structural characteristics common to most countries in the region that had a bearing on the reform process.The region’s competitive advantages are biased in favour of natural resources, and primary commodities explain a large share of exports: minerals and oil in Chile, Venezuela and Peru, agriculture in Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay; even in more industrialized Brazil and Mexico primary products are still relevant. This feature impinges on the region’s political economy via the so-called natural resource â€Å"curse†. The distribution of income and assets in Latin America is highly unequal compared to other regions in the world.As the 2006 World Development Report of the World Bank suggests, income ine quality of this magnitude is quite likely a signal of unequal opportunities (rather than of different choices) – World Bank (2005). Because of the structural lack of equity, many Latin Americans did not have the chance to take advantage of the opportunities open by reform; hence many opportunities at the individual level were lost. Besides, groups that were marginalized and segregated did not support reform and often opposed it actively, fearing that a more competitive environment would do them more harm than good.In several of the countries, the so-called structural reforms came hand in hand with efforts at macroeconomic stabilization. There had been a long list of stabilization attempts before this period, but the macroeconomic stabilization programs that accompanied the structural reforms were usually deeper and lasted more than previous ones. The perception of greater deepness of these stabilization efforts was related to the simultaneous implementation of other component s of the reform package.Also, there have been important â€Å"contagion† effects across countries, that is, learning from the interpretation of the (successful and unsuccessful) experiences of other countries in the region. Having referred to many common factors, it is also important to stress that Latin American countries are quite different in many dimensions. Country size is obviously one of the dimensions in which the region is not homogeneous; a dimension that became particularly relevant for the fate of the inward oriented ISI model (think about the size of the domestic market in Brazil as compared for instance with Chile).Economic and social development show significant variation across countries as well. The historical starting points in terms of social and economic structure, as well as in the details of past policies, were also different in different countries when pro-market reforms began. Social indicators as literacy ratios, life expectancy and the like also show much variation. Even when most countries adopted a version of the ISI model in the post-war period, the progress they made in that direction varied considerably in terms, for instance, of the degree of industrialization they reached.This was partly dictated by the size of the domestic market and partly by policy options and political conditions. In spite of some common institutional heritage from the colonial era, political and institutional history also shows significant variation across countries in Latin America. Most countries in the region experienced periods of dictatorship in the twentieth century, but while some spent most of the century under those conditions, others did it for relatively short periods. The quality of institutions and the incidence of corruption also varies, Kaufmann, D. , A. Kraay and M. Mastruzzi (2003).The different starting points and idiosyncratic characteristics influenced the fate of the pro-market reform. BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Brazil The hist ory of Brazil starts with Indigenous Peoples of the Americas, who arrived thousands of years ago by crossing the Bering land bridge into Alaska and then moving south. The first European to explore Brazil was Pedro Alvares Cabral on April 22, 1500 under the sponsorship of Portugal. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Brazil was a colony of Portugal. On September 7, 1822, the country declared its independence from Portugal and became a constitutional monarchy, the Empire of Brazil.A military coup in 1889 established a republican government. The country has seen a dictatorship (1930–1934 and 1937–1945) and a period of military rule (1964–1985). Brazil returned to democracy in 1985, after more than two decades of uninterrupted military governments. The first democratic government unsuccessfully tried to stabilize the economy and made little progress with reform, but since 1990, when Collor de Mello arrived to the presidency, the successive democratic governments ca rried on a series of market-oriented reforms. It was argued that democratization facilitated the introduction of market oriented reforms in Brazil.While the military stayed in government, the protective mantle of â€Å"national security† and â€Å"key-sectors protection† became a standard speech, always blocking a deeper integration into the world economy. This ideological view was present not just at the top of the military regime but also inside the mid-level military officers who were commonly appointed to prominent positions in economic ministries and state enterprises. In the nineties, under democratic rule, a new breed of internationally-minded top civil servants replaced these officers.Reform in Brazil followed a pragmatic way, meaning that it was gradual, piecemeal, and loosely coordinated. Fragmentation of the political system prevented any group from gaining dominance and forced a negotiated style, leading to gradualism. So, most policies took time, were nego tiated, and had to go through multiple veto points. The informal institution of rather fluid ties among state elites and between them and business facilitated consensus building around reform policies, but they had to be negotiated. In this manner, the policy outcomes were unlikely to be extreme.The actual social and economic outcomes have not been too spectacular, and some discontent against â€Å"the reforms† has breaded. Yet, the arrival to office in 2003 of a left-wing party, the PT, has not generated any reversal, suggesting that â€Å"pragmatism† is not likely to be displaced soon in Brazilian economic policy making. Chile The territory of Chile has been populated since at least 12,000 ago. By the 16th century, Spanish conquistadors began to subdue and colonize the region of present-day Chile, and the territory became a colony from 1540 to 1818, when it gained independence from Spain.The country's economic development was successively marked by the export of firs t agricultural produce, then saltpetre and later copper. The wealth of raw materials led to an economic upturn, but also led to dependency, and even wars with neighbouring states. The country was governed during most of its first 150 years of independent life by different forms of restricted government, where the electorate was carefully vetted and controlled by an elite.Failure to address the economic and social disparities and increasing political awareness of the less-affluent population, as well as indirect intervention and economic funding to the main political groups by both the KGB and the CIA, as part of the Cold War, led to a political polarization under Socialist President Salvador Allende which in turn resulted in the 11 September 1973 coup and the military dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet, whose 17- year regime was responsible for numerous human rights violations and deep market-oriented economic reforms.In 1990, Chile made a peaceful transition to democracy. Wit h ups and downs, Chile followed a basically inward-looking-state-centred development strategy from 1930 to 1973. It was not very different from the experience of other Latin American countries, save probably for the socialist period between 1971 and 1973. This period ended up with a severe socio-economic and political crisis that paved the road for a military coup that inaugurated a dictatorship that would last until the late eighties. The military government pushed a far reaching pro-market reform agenda.This experience is usually regarded as a leading case of market-friendly reforms, not only for the adoption of a shock therapy, but also for doing it well before most other countries in the region. Beginning in late 1973, several structural reforms were implemented, including the liberalization of most prices, interest rates and wages; drastic reductions in tariffs and the elimination of non-tariff barriers to trade; the strengthening of fiscal and monetary policies; the privatizat ion of more than 500 firms; the reform of the pension program; and the adoption of new policies of competition and regulation.In the early eighties, Chile, like other developing countries, underwent a deep economic and financial crisis. There was some reversal of reforms during this period, but the military government resumed the liberalizing reforms soon after it. Chile returned to democracy in 1990. One of the most notable aspects of the Chilean process is that after the return to democracy in 1990, the centre-left coalition that has governed the country since, did not revert the market reform process.There were several peculiar factors leading the military dictatorship to follow the suggestions of a group of foreign-trained economists towards market liberalization (against the nationalistic tendencies of part of the military). Some possible sources of opposition (such as unions or left leaning parties) were silenced by the dictatorship.Business sectors were relatively grateful si nce firms were devolved to private owners after nationalization by the previous socialist government of Allende, so that they did not oppose trade liberalization. The way the transition to democracy was instrumented in the late eighties was key for the consolidation of pro-market reforms in Chile. Consolidation was by no means granted by that time, for the parties that formed the winning coalition (named the Concertacion) in the 1989 elections had opposed many of the reforms.Also, formerly repressed interest groups could take advantage of the new political environment to voice their demands, pushing the new government towards a less neutral and more lenient fiscal policy. According to Foguel, Miguel, Indermit Gill, Rosane Mendonca and Ricardo Paes de Barros, (1998), several factors contributed to the consolidation of the pro-market reform in the transition period: * the good performance of the economy in 1985-1989; * the concurrent fall of socialist regimes in Europe; the economic f ailure of democratic transition in Argentina (that contributed to convince several left15 wing politicians of the risks of â€Å"heterodox† policies); * the intellectual renovation and internationalization of the circles around the Concertacion, which lead to a â€Å"revaluation of continuity†; and * several institutional enclaves in the new constitution, increasing the veto power and political relevance of â€Å"the right†, which forced democratic presidents to follow consensual strategies on economic matters. Chile seems to be in a path of institutional and policy consolidation.The democratic governments have maintained the core of the economic reforms undertaken during the dictatorship, while steadily (albeit slowly, according to some views) advancing on the social and democratic front. These steps have taken place according to a style of policymaking that is much more consensual and institutionalized than that of other Latin American countries. (IADB, 2005). EVOLUTION OF LABOUR REFORM IN BRAZIL The Consolidated Labour Code The main body of the Brazilian labour legislation was introduced in the 1940s, and consolidated into the Consolidacao das Leis do Trabalho (CLT) in 1943.The CLT is a large, often overlapping, set of rules which determines individual and collective rights and duties of the workers, unions and firms. The law determines that all workers must have a booklet where all individual labour contracts and its changes over time are registered by the employer. By definition, a formal worker has a booklet signed by his employer (â€Å"carteira assinada†) Besides the obligation to sign the booklet, the law stipulates a set of minimum conditions any employment relationship must follow.The most important rules are: maximum hours of work per week; maximum extra-time working hours; minimum payment for extra-time work; minimum wage; pre-paid annual vacations; special protection clauses for women and children; the dismissal of pre gnant women is forbidden; the right of paid vacation before and after childbirth, for the mother; special work conditions for night shifts; one month pre-notification of firing; and protection against unjustified dismissals. There have been changes in the legislation since the creation of the CLT. In particular: In 1962, introduction of a one monthly wage annual bonus (â€Å"thirteenth salary†).In 1963, introduction of a family allowance. In 1965, introduction of a wage adjustment law which determined the minimum rate of wage adjustments of all workers in the economy. In 1966, creation of a severance fund (Fundo de Garantia por Tempo de Servico – FGTS) in place of a clause forbidding dismissal of workers with more than 10 years of tenure. In 1986, creation of an unemployment insurance program which today covers about 25% of the country’s labour force. In 1988, approval of a new Constitution with the introduction of new labour clauses. Severance Rules and Unemplo yment CompensationUntil 1965, to fire a worker without a proper justification the employer had to pay one month’s wage for each year of work in the firm. The compensation was calculated on the basis of the higher wage received during the work contract. It was a duty of the employer to prove the dismissal was justified, and the conditions for justified dismissals were clearly defined in the law. After 10 years in the same enterprise, dismissals were forbidden by law, except if properly justified. In 1966, this entire system of protection against non-justified dismissals was changed.A severance fund was created, called the Fundo de Garantia por Tempo de Servico (FGTS). When hiring a worker, the firm had to open a banking account for the worker and deposit 8% of the value of the wage in the account. Today, Caixa Economica Federal, a government saving and loans institution, collects the FGTS levy and invests it primarily in urban housing projects giving workers a legally guarante ed minimum deposit rate. When dismissed without a just cause (â€Å"sem justa causa†) the worker could draw this money and received a monetary compensation corresponding to a fine of 10% over the total amount of the fund.Like many other Latin American countries (see Loayza, 1998), dismissal for economic reasons is not considered a just cause. In 1988 the fine for unjust dismissal was increased to 40% of the worker’s FGTS account balance. Besides this fine, the employer has to notify the worker one month before he will be fired. This is the â€Å"aviso previo† law, or previous notification of firing. During the month the worker has received the previous notification of firing, he/she is allowed, according to the law, to take two hours a day to look for a new job.This implies a minimum cost of 25% of the worker's monthly wage. In fact the cost is usually higher since firms end up paying the notification fee to the worker and dismissing him immediately. Thus, the t otal cost of dismissal is 25% to 100% of the monthly wage plus 40% of the FGTS. The cost depends on the number of months the worker has worked for the firm. Since 1986, when fired, besides the advance notice, access to the FGTS (and the 40% fine for unfair dismissal), the worker also has the right to an unemployment compensation benefits.The unemployment compensation program offers partial coverage for up to four months of unemployment (extended to five months after 1996). To become eligible to receive the benefit, the worker must meet the following criteria: * to have been dismissed without a just cause; * to have had a formal labour contract during the last six months or to have been legally self-employed for at least 15 months; * to be unemployed for at least seven days; * must not receive any other pension; * must not have any other type of income sufficient to guarantee his own subsistence and that of his family.The value of the benefit cannot be lower than the value of the min imum wage, is adjusted monthly for inflation, and is related to the average wage received by the worker in the last three months in the previous job. Wage Laws An important change in the CLT was the introduction of the Wage Adjustment Law in 1965. Before this date, wage adjustments were fixed through collective bargaining between workers and employers unions, at the settlement dates (â€Å"data base†), and through individual negotiations between one worker and his/her employer.Only the minimum wage was determined directly by the President of the Republic, although most of the time it incorporated automatically the prescriptions given by indexation clauses imbedded in the Law. The Wage Adjustment Law gave the government the right to determine the minimum rate of adjustment of all wages in the formal sector of the economy. The first wage law stipulated that nominal wages should be adjusted once a year, at the settlement date of each occupation, following a formula which took th e past and expected future rate of inflation and the growth rate in GDP per capita as the base for the adjustments.The specific formula and the adjustment period changed many times over the years, as the rate of inflation increased. In 1995, one year after the introduction of the Real Plan, the Wage Law was abolished. Today, upward adjustment of wages is negotiated between employers and employees. But downward adjustment of wages is for all practical purposes prohibited by the Constitution: attempts to do so make employers open to lawsuits, which are generally resolved in favor of the worker.This was irrelevant during a time of high inflation, but now quite possibly adds to the rigidity of the labour market. The Reforms of 1988 The main changes of labour legislation introduced in the Constitution of 1988 can be summarized as follows: * The maximum number of hours of work per week was reduced from 48 to 44 hours and the minimum payment for extra-time hours increased from 20% to 50% o f the workers’ wages. * For continuous work shifts the maximum daily journey was reduced from eight to six hours. * A vacation bonus of one-third of the workers’ wages was created. The childbirth leave for mothers was increased to 120 days and a five days childbirth leave for the father was introduced. * Firing costs for unjustified dismissals increased from 10% of the FGTS balance to 40%. This is the list of the minimum individual rights for private sector and state enterprise workers. Working conditions can be improved through negotiations between the individual worker and the firm, or through collective bargaining. The Constitution of 1988 clearly mandated higher nonwage benefits and made dismissals costlier for employers. Payroll Taxes and Mandatory Benefits after 1988The CLT and the 1988 Constitution stipulate a very comprehensive set of minimum standards any individual contract must follow. The rules do not provide much space for negotiations between employers an d workers. The result is a rigid set of minimum rules, which reduces the flexibility of the labour contract in face of changes in the economic environment. In addition to the costs imposed by this inflexibility, there are more direct and obvious non-wage costs due to payroll taxes and mandatory benefits required by the law. The cost of labour can be decomposed into four parts: The basic contractual wage. * Mandatory benefits which include the annual one month bonus (terceiro salario), the contribution to the FGTS, vacations and other benefits. * Contributions to the official training system (SENAI and SENAC), to finance an institution which assist small enterprises (SEBRAE) and a contribution paid by firms to finance an workers’ assistance service (SESI or SESC). * Contribution to the federal social security system (INSS) and to fund educational services salario educacao) and an on-the-job accident insurance fee mandatory for all firms and proportional to the payroll.In addit ion to these contributions based on payroll costs, employers are also charged levies on revenues to pay for additional INSS-related obligations (Cofins), to be raised in 1999 from 1 to 2 percent and PIS/PASEP, the contributions towards the Fundo de Aparelho de Trabalhadores (FAT) which fund unemployment compensation, job search assistance and active labour programs such as training and microenterprise support schemes. These labour related levies can add up to between 2 and 3 percent of employer revenues. EVOLUTION OF LABOUR REFORM IN CHILE Labour Code (1931-1965)Initially, Chile’s labour market regulations is characterized with tripartite system of collective bargaining and conflict resolution. 1931 labour code focuses on conflict resolution. While the legislation favoured collective bargaining at the firm level, and this form of negotiations was dominant, the mechanisms of conflict resolution projected negotiations beyond the enterprise. With time, sector-wide negotiations s pread throughout the economy. Dismissal without expression of cause with a month’s notice. Severance payment of a month’s wage per year of tenure for â€Å"white collar workers.The main component of payroll taxes are social security contributions. Chile started a Social Security System in 1924, building from a set of privately established pensions systems that covered specific groups of workers or sectors of economic activity. These programs finance retirement, invalidity and family survivor benefits, a public health care system, the payment of family allowances, and an unemployment subsidy. In addition, there was a 1 % contribution to fund public training programs. The Chile labour market reform has come a long way and in each stage undergone few reforms to meet the demand of the changing market conditions.After the deadly coup of 1973, several labour unions, labour institutions were dissolved. In October, 1973, the Chilean government introduced wage adjustments, whi ch were linked to inflation rate. Chile labour market reform is significant because of the following reasons: * The country underwent a switch over from an economy, which was regulated to an economy, which is unregulated as well as open. This was brought about by the implementation of economic reforms pertaining to labour markets and pension system in the country. * The labour market in Chile has been over the years very unpredictable.Labour market in Chile during the seventies: During the middle seventies, the government in Chile launched the first structural reforms in Chile. Which in turn increased the unemployment rate. However, Chile experienced a healthy growth in the economy towards the end of seventies. Despite the speedy growth in economy, the labour market refused to recover from the high rate of unemployment. Reverse to what it was during the seventies, the labour market in the eighties recuperated very fast even though the crisis was much more severe than the previous on e. Even rate of growth in wages recovered comparatively fast.During this period, rate of unemployment reached 25%. As part of Chile labour market reform, the proportional adjustments pertaining to lower wages was made more than the higher wages. The method of indexation that existed between 1973 to 1979 had many drawbacks. In order to overcome these drawbacks, Labour Plan of 1979, was implemented, which stated that adjustment of wages would be made at or above inflation rate. At regular intervals, as part of Chile labour market reform, the government carried on with the practice of increasing wages but not in accordance with the rising rate of inflation.However, during the 1990s, there was increase in wages higher than what was declared for the purpose of readjustments. The Employment Security Law, states that if there is no valid cause for dismissing an employee, the worker could be re engaged in the job as per orders from a labour court. However, in the year 1978, this law was sub stituted by a method of â€Å"severance payment†. Chile labour market reform, Decree Law 2,200 stated that employers had the right to make changes in the contract between the employers as well as the employees and that they could fire an employee without giving any explanation to the employees.A â€Å"severance payment†, which was minimum was also introduced. Decree Law 2,200 as well as Chile labour market reform of 1979, led to the introduction of new techniques to supervise the activities of the labour unions. This was stated in Decree Law, 2,756. Collective bargaining was stated in Decree Law 2,758. Decree Law 2,756 and Decree Law 2,758 are collectively referred to as Labour Plan. Decree Law 2,756 governs matters related to labour union. Whereas, Decree law, 2,758 governs the various norms adopted in the event of a strike.Labour reforms that took place in Chile is summarized below; Phase I (1966-73) Increased polarization of the labour movement Generalized use of wa ge indexation. Dismissals require expression of â€Å"just† cause, or severance payment of a month’s wage per year of tenure. In spite of very high nominal contribution rates, by 1970 the public sector spent 20. 5 percent of its budget to cover the deficits in the health and pensions systems along with its own contributions. Phase II (1974-79) Economic Liberalization with a highly intervened labour market.Decree Law 670 of October 1974 substituted the earlier legislation that defined the tripartite commissions, giving them a consultative character. They were understood to be a transition mechanism, while a new policy towards the labour market was developed, and while union activities were banned.. Economy-wide wage adjustments imposed by decree. Dismissal without expression of cause reinstated in 1978 for all new hires. Employers pay a severance of a month’s wage per year of tenure to all dismissed workers, unless there is â€Å"just cause,† which include s â€Å"economic cause. A number of partial changes brought down contributions from a 60 percent at their peak in 1974, to the order of 33 percent in 1980. Rates varied according to the specific plan at which an employee was affiliated, but all the plans were guaranteed by the state. For example, in 1976, the 1% contribution earmarked to fund training program was eliminated. Phase III (1980-1990) Union affiliation becomes voluntary. Decentralized collective bargaining. Labour negotiations opened to market forces. Strikes without job guarantees after sixty days.No intervention of the government in the affairs of unions or the collective bargaining process, except for a wage floor guaranteed by law. The wage floor was eliminated in 1982, and as a by-product, the necessary conditions to replace striking workers were eroded. It also marked the era of minimum wage setting. Starting in 1981, dismissals of any worker, new or previously hired, can take place without expression of cause, an d as long as severance is paid. Severance payments are open to negotiations. In the absence of an explicit agreement the minimum severance would be a month wages per year of tenure with a 5 months ceiling.A 1984 reform established that the minimum severance agreed by the parties could not be less than the severance established by law. Furthermore, â€Å"economic cause† for dismissal is not â€Å"just cause† anymore. In 1980, a reform lowered social security contributions to just above 20 percent (10 % towards retirement, 7% towards health and about 3% towards disability). New entrants to the labour force would contribute to a new old-age program based on a mandated individualized savings plan, to be managed by private administrators (AFPs).Old contributors could to opt out of the traditional pay-as-you-go system. In the case of health care contributions, both old contributors and new entrants were given the choice to opt out of the public system (FONASA) and use the 7 percent towards a health care insurance policy provided by an authorized private health insurer (ISAPRES). A basic pension, the unemployment insurance, and the family allowances programs would be fully financed by the central government budget. Phase IV (1991 till date) This is the Consolidation of Labour Reforms.The new law eliminated the sixty days period for the legal strike, which allowed employers to dismiss striking workers without severance. The new law also reinstated stricter conditions for workers replacements in case of strike. Labour negotiations can take place at the sector level if both workers and employers agree to it. Dismissals require an expression of â€Å"cause†. Severance of one month wages per year of tenure applies to dismissals with â€Å"economic cause. † Severance would be paid with a 20% surcharge if the employer cannot prove an alleged â€Å"economic cause. No severance obligation in case of dismissals with â€Å"just cause. † Dismi ssal ceiling on severance payment raised to 11 month wages. THEMES ON LABOUR REFORM DISCUSSION The thematic elements under which labour reforms that occurred in the two Latin American countries under study will be discussed will focus on the labour’s strategic interest in labour law and its ability to pursue those interest during specific rounds of reform. These interests are derived from the legal and institutional framework of labour relations, which are often inherited from earlier period of legal and political incorporation of labour.Secondly is the willingness of government to see reform through. Government resolve is shaped by the pressure for the reform that it faces from international actors or domestic constituencies. Another thematic approach is the transition context for the reform. The nature of transitions as well as their timing affects the political environment for labour reform. Democratic transitions tend to favour rights-based reforms and strengthen unions, while market-oriented economic transitions tend to favour labour flexibility and weaken unions.The Initiation of the Reforms The crisis of the ISI model in the sixties and seventies left Latin American leaders searching for new paradigms. In this context, the pro-market reform agenda began to gain strength, initially pushed by groups of professional economists trained in the US, and reinforced later in the eighties and nineties by the IFIs. The experience of Thatcher in the UK and the fall of communism also contributed to create an environment favourable to pro-market reform. In some countries, these new ideas got through to the ruling army forces.Chile was the leading case, after a short socialist experience that ended with a military coup. Other countries only began the reform process in the early nineties, after suffering severe macroeconomic instability in the eighties. By that time, Chile had already become an example of a successful reformer that many wanted to reproduce. The debt crisis that blew up in the early eighties gave place to a decade characterized by severe macroeconomic instability in most countries in the region. There were several attempts at eterodox macroeconomic stabilization that failed completely. Brazil is probably one of the most distinctive cases. The pro-market structural reforms were out of the agenda in those years in most Latin American countries. Even in Chile, the debt crisis caused a partial and temporary reversion of the pro-market labour reform. It was only after these policies ended up in hyperinflation that the idea of implementing more orthodox stabilization programs bundled with structural pro-market reforms made its way through in the region in the early nineties.In the 1980s and 1990s, several democratic political leaders who gained elections proposing leftwing platforms ended up adopting the market-friendly package. Some of these presidents were concerned by little more than their political survival in the midst of i mpending or ongoing macroeconomic crises, and were pretty much open to â€Å"anything† that might deliver some short-term economic results that could lead to favourable political results for them. They ended up convinced that some variant of the market-friendly package was the most sensible option they had.Implementation Recent literature on reform emphasizes the key role of appropriate implementation and enforcement capacity to determine the outcome of reform (Stein and Tommasi 2005; Rius and van de Walle, 2004; Fanelli and Popov, 2003). It is considered that while the best designed policy packages may generate bad outcomes if implementation fails, policies that are not first-best in terms of design may still render acceptable results if they are well implemented (IADB, 2005).The quality of public policies in terms of enforcement and implementation varies considerably across the Latin American countries. Stein and Tommasi (2005) classified the Latin American countries in sev eral key dimensions of their economic policies, one of them being the capacity to enforce and effectively implement the policies. Of the two Latin American countries considered in this paper, Chile appears as the one with quite high enforcement and implementation capacity; Brazil has intermediate capability with implementation quality.The enforcement and implementation capacities are in turn related to the quality and independence of the bureaucracy, the quality and independence of the judiciary, and the capabilities of the Congress. Stein and Tommasi (2005) show that the index of enforcement and implementation capacity is positively correlated to indexes of congress capability, judicial independence and civil service development across these two Latin American countries. An independent and highly qualified judicial system is probably the most obvious enforcer of the laws.Delegating the implementation of policies to a professional and independent bureaucracy is also a good enforceme nt device. Chumacero et al (2005) claim that the Chilean military government that initially pushed the pro-market reform replaced the existing bureaucracy with a strong technocracy that contributed to improve the implementation and enforcement capacities of the State. Brazil followed a different route in that reformers did not replace the existing bureaucracy, Castelar Pinheiro, A. , R. Bonelli and B. Ross Schneider (2004).Nevertheless, Brazil already had a relatively good bureaucracy before the pro-market reform era. This allowed the government to delegate the implementation of trade liberalization and privatization to autonomous agencies, which according to Castelar Pinheiro et al (2004), was key for the advance of these reforms. Stakeholders The labour movement was more independent from the State and from the parties that ended up being reformist. In Brazil and Chile, trade unions would not favour pro-market reform, but they were forbidden in Chile when the reform began and relat ively weak in Brazil (Castelar Pinheiro et al).Labour movements in Brazil retained some degree of organizational strength, mobilization capacity and political influence, and were therefore able to fight off some of the reforms that were aimed at expanding labour market flexibility. They fought hard against the loss of core organizational resources as well as legal provisions regarding union structure and collective bargaining. In Chile, economic labour reforms occurred mostly under the dictatorship, along with labour code changes, the prospect for expanding labour rights under the democratic transition were limited.The issue of labour reform lies at the core of this disjuncture as it straddles major fault lines innate to the Chilean neoliberal project. On the one hand, cheap and flexible labour with few rights to collective action has formed a central axis of Chile’s economic model since Pinochet’s ruthless undermining of organised labour in the mid-1970s. This oppress ion was given a tangible legal form in the 1980 labour code that denied even the most basic of rights to the working population. Labour movements in Chile was pressured to moderate its demands during transition.Furthermore, labour ties to parties in power under the concertacion further constrained the movements ability to assert demands for reforms in the first-round democratic government. In summary, in Brazil political stability is a contextual premium, a potential threat to that stability came from the labour movement. By contrast, in Chile, the prime concern was economic stability. Unfortunately, labour mobilization was constrained by political compromises and organizational factors. The economic elites were the ones to be appeased.Capitalist interests, institutionally represented by the Confederacion de Produccion y Commercio (CPC), have strongly opposed any substantive changes to the labour code. They argue that, by impinging on labour market flexibility, reforms to the labour code would undermine the foundations of domestic accumulation to the detriment of all Chileans Inclusiveness of the Political Process behind the Reforms In Brazil, President Fernando Henrique Cardoso negotiated the pro-market reform along several years, and there was no reversal, even after the opposition took office.Reform was very gradual and partial, mostly due to the effective inclusion of opposition parties and social groups in the negotiation of reform. This participation slowed down reform, but it can be argued that it also contributed to render the economic policy more predictable. Political participation might not only contribute to reform because it reduces resistance, but also because it promotes a more open society in which special interests find themselves more constrained. Chile is a case in which the bulk of the reform process took place under the Pinochet dictatorship.Yet, the decision of the successive incoming democratic governments of sustaining the main aspects of the market-oriented reforms, together with the consensual and institutionalized policymaking style with which modifications and adjustments have proceeded, has tended to generate an increasingly virtuous circle between reforms, democratic participation, and transparency. CONCLUDING REMARKS This paper attempted to extract some lessons from the reform experiences of the selected Latin American countries, on the basis of underlying country studies.That exercise led, in its central section, to reflections on several key themes in the political economy of reform, reflections which themselves had some elements of â€Å"concluding remarks†. For that reason, this final section is relatively brief, and instead of recapitulating everything said before, it just draws from a few points in order to take a (succinct) prospective look. The early evaluations of the impact of market oriented reforms were far more optimistic than later ones.The present political dynamics of these countries suggests that the fate of reforms is correlated with the outcomes of reform, and that both in turn are correlated with more slow-moving (not to say, permanent) â€Å"fundamental† local conditions, in particular with local institutional conditions. The ranking of both countries in terms of reform outcomes, and reform continuity and sustainability is almost identical to a ranking of State Capabilities developed by Stein and Tommasi at the Inter-American Development Bank, reflected in Stein and Tommasi (2005) and IADB (2005).Perhaps the main lesson we extract from the experience at this point, is that in democratic settings it is not a good strategy to impose reforms from above or by surprise. Consensus building operating through the social and political specificities of the country is not only a better way to achieve the desired reforms, but even a process for identifying and implementing policies and reforms more suitable for each country. The capacity of countries to achieve such processes seems conditioned by their political institutions and policymaking capabilities.REFERENCE Aguilera-Alfred, N. , D. Borda and D. Richards (2004) â€Å"Understanding Reform. The Predatory State and Economic Reform: An Examination of Paraguay’s Political Economic Transition†, Global Development Network, Mimeo. Castelar Pinheiro, A. , R. Bonelli and B. Ross Schneider (2004) â€Å"Pragmatism and the Political Economy of Market Reform in Brazil†, Global Development Network, Mimeo. Chumacero, R. , R. Fuentes, R. Luders and J. Vial (2005) â€Å"Understanding Chilean Reforms†, Global Development Network, Mimeo. Collier, Ruth Berins, and David Collier. 1979.Inducements versus Constraints: Disaggregating â€Å"Corporatism. † American Political Science Review 73, 4: 967-86 Fanelli, J. M. and V. Popov (2003). On the Philosophical, Political and Methodological Underpinnings of Reform. Global Development Network. Inter-American Development Bank (20 05) The Politics of Policies. Economic and Social Progress in Latin America and the Caribbean 2006 Report. Kaufmann, D. , A. Kraay and M. Mastruzzi (2003) â€Å"Governance Matters III: Governance Indicators for 1996-2002. † World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3106, Washington DC: The World Bank.Rius, A. and N. van de Walle (2003) â€Å"Political Insitutions and Economic Policy Reform†, Thematic Paper for the Global Research Project on Understanding Reform, Global Development Network. Schneider, B. R. (2004) â€Å"Organizing Interests and Coalitions in the Politics of Market Reform in Latin America† World Politics 56 (April), 456-79. Stein, E. and M. Tommasi (2005) â€Å"Political Institutions, Policymaking Processes, and Policy Outcomes. A Comparison of Latin American Cases†, Inter-American Development Bank, Mimeo. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Military_government_of_Chile_